Midwestern Queer History Bibliography


“Eastern South Dakota might seem to be the last place on earth to locate a likely queer history. Queer historiography, fortunately, has proven so prolific, so popular an academic pursuit, it is seemingly reaching the last place on earth for identifying a burgeoning, historical LGBTQ+ community.”

- Adam Sonstegard, "Outing the Midwestern 'Bachers' of Garland's A Little Norsk," Midwest Quarterly 62, no. 1 (fall 2020): 27, ProQuest.


...The organization of this bibliography follows the timeline from the presentation "Midwestern Queer History in Practice," presented at the Midwestern History Association conference in 2026. Lists of works are in order of year of publication, then alphabetical within a year, and titles and notes at the beginning of each section provide additional historical context. For alternative historiographies, consider the book review "Midwestern History is Out of the Closet" by Matthew Pehl (Middle West Review 6, no. 2, spring 2020) and the opening article of "Queering the Middle" (a special issue of GLQ published in 2014) written by Martin F. Manalansan IV, Chantal Nadeau, Richard T. Rodríguez, and Siobhan B. Somerville.In lieu of annotations, this bibliography associates simple keywords with each citation. There are five categories of keywords: Region, Affiliation (author), Affiliation (publisher), Subject, and Format. Region refers to any geographical unit smaller than the entire region, starting with state and then shrinking in scale (ex. North Dakota, Fargo). Affiliation (author) refers to the identity of the author, whether they identify themselves with a college, university, or other academic institution (ex. Washington University librarian); a public history institution (ex. public historian at the Minnesota Historical Society); or outside of these institutions, listed as "community." Affiliation (publisher) is similar, although "community" becomes "independent" (ex. Independent, Arcadia Publishing). Subject refers to a limited list of other major topics works discuss: critical geography (from rural to urban to suburban), race, student activism, political history, legal history, and queer media. That list as their respective keywords is: Geography, Race, Students, Political, Legal, Media. Format refers to what form works take, from books and articles in academic and public history journals to capstones and digital projects....

Nascent methods and narratives, 1989–1999

During this time, scholars attempted to conceptualize gay and lesbian (GL) Midwest, applying ethnographic methods to study contemporary and historical GL life in the region. University presses published case studies by Joseph P. Goodwin (More Man Than You'll Ever Be! Gay Folklore and Acculturation in Middle America, Indiana University Press, 1989) and Jerry Lee Kramer ("Bachelor Farmers and Spinsters: Gay and Lesbian Identities and Communities in Rural North Dakota," in Mapping Desire, Routledge, 1995) as well as collections of interviews edited by Karen Osborne and William Spurlin (Reclaiming the Heartland: Lesbian and Gay Voices from the Midwest, University of Minnesota Press, 1995) and Will Fellows (Farm Boys: Lives of Gay Men from the Rural Midwest, University of Wisconsin Press, 1997).One notable detractor of this regional turn in GL studies was queer historian Robert J. Corber. In his book review "Queer Regionalism," which discussed Reclaiming the Heartland and Farm Boys alongside two other works, he commented that the "most striking about Southern and Midwestern lesbian and gay experience is how similar it is to lesbian and gay experience elsewhere in the nation," arguing that authors had not convincingly made the case that region mattered (American Literary History 11, no. 2 (summer 1999): 394).

Citation (CMOS 18, NB)Keywords
Drexel, Allen. “Before Paris Burned: Race, Class, and Male Homosexuality on the Chicago South Side, 1935–1960.” In Creating a Place For Ourselves: Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Community Histories, edited by Brett Beemyn. Routledge, 1997.Region: Illinois, Chicago, South Side ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Dartmouth College ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Taylor & Francis ; Subject: Race ; Format: Book, chapter
Johnson, David K. “The Kids of Fairytown: Gay Male Culture on Chicago's Near North Side in the 1930s.” In Creating a Place For Ourselves: Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Community Histories, edited by Brett Beemyn. Routledge, 1997.Region: Illinois, Chicago, Near North Side ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Northwestern University ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Taylor & Francis ; Format: Book, chapter
Retzloff, Tim. “Cars and Bars: Assembling Gay Men in Postwar Flint, Michigan.” In Creating a Place For Ourselves: Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Community Histories, edited by Brett Beemyn. Routledge, 1997.Region: Michigan, Flint ; Affiliation (author): Academic ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Taylor & Francis ; Format: Book, chapter
Thorpe, Roey. “The Changing Face of Lesbian Bars in Detroit 1938–1965.” In Creating a Place For Ourselves: Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Community Histories, edited by Brett Beemyn. Routledge, 1997.Region: Michigan, Detroit ; Affiliation (author): Academic ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Taylor & Francis ; Format: Book, chapter

Universities at the center, 2000–2012

In the 2000s, universities served as the center of knowledge production and sharing around Midwestern queer history. Student projects emerged, including those investigating home universities in the Midwest as sites of queer history via LGBT student centers (ex. Clink, Bullimore) and bringing local community histories into academia (ex. Drew). Two student projects became enduring digital exhibits on OutHistory.org: Tristian Cabello's "Queer Bronzeville" and Susan Stryker's students' "The Midwest's 'Gay Mecca.'" And while museums and independent presses began to publish local queer histories, university presses ultimately published pivotal historic texts written by community members: Chicago Whispers by St. Sukie de la Croix (University of Wisconsin Press, 2012) and Land of 10,000 Loves by Stewart Van Cleve (University of Minnesota Press, 2012).

Citation (CMOS 18, NB)Keywords
Clink, Kellian Donna. “A History of the Center for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Students on the Campus of Minnesota State University, Mankato.” EdS thesis, Minnesota State University, Mankato, 2005. Cornerstone.Region: Minnesota, Mankato ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Minnesota State University, Mankato ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Minnesota State University, Mankato ; Subject: Students ; Format: Capstone
Bullimore, Phillip James. “Pressure from All Sides: A Comparative History of the Issues and Policies Related to the Gay and Lesbian Student Populations of The Ohio State University and The University of Michigan, 1971 to 1994.” Senior honors thesis, The Ohio State University, 2006. Knowledge Bank.Region: Michigan, Ann Arbor ; Region: Ohio, Columbus ; Affiliation (author): Academic, The Ohio State University ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, The Ohio State University ; Subject: Students ; Format: Capstone
Baim, Tracy, editor. Out and Proud in Chicago: An Overview of the City's Gay Community. Agate Surrey, 2008.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Community ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Agate ; Subject: Race, Black ; Subject: Race, Indigenous ; Format: Book
Cabello, Tristan. “Queer Bronzeville, 1900–1985.” OutHistory.org, 2008. outhistory.org/exhibits/show/queer-bronzeville.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Northwestern University ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, OutHistory.org ; Subject: Race, Black ; Format: Website
Hanson, Dan C. History of the Minnesota Gay and Lesbian Legal Assistance (MnGALLA). Friends of the Bill of Rights Foundation, 2008.Region: Minnesota ; Affiliation (author): Community, lawyer ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Friends of the Bill of the Rights Foundation ; Subject: Legal ; Format: Book
Rose, Katrina C. “Is the Renaissance Still Alive in Michigan? Or Just Extrinsic? Transsexuals’ Rights After National Pride at Work.” Ohio Northern University Law Review 35 (2009): 107–154.Region: Michigan ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Iowa ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Ohio Northern University ; Subject: Legal ; Format: Article, academic journal
Drew, Michael. “A Milwaukee Tradition: A Comparative History of the Gay People's Union and the City Club of Milwaukee.” Paper, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, 2010. MINDS@UW.Region: Wisconsin, Milwaukee ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire ; Subject: Media ; Format: Capstone
Pierce, Jennifer L., editor. Queer Twin Cities: Twin Cities GLBT Oral History Project. University of Minnesota Press, 2010.Region: Minnesota, Twin Cities ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Minnesota ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Minnesota ; Format: Book
Rottman, Andrea. “Passing Gay Rights in Wisconsin, 1967–1983.” MA thesis, Freie Universität Berlin, 2010. Wisconsin LGBTQ History Project.Region: Wisconsin ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Freie Universität Berlin ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Freie Universität Berlin ; Subject: Political ; Format: Capstone
Susan Stryker’s students. “The Midwest's ‘Queer Mecca’: 40 Years of GLBTQ History in Bloomington, Indiana, 1969–2009.” OutHistory.org, 2010. outhistory.org/exhibits/show/bloomington/bloomingtonintro.Region: Indiana, Bloomington ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Indiana University Bloomington ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Indiana University Bloomington ; Format: Website
Austin, Jill and Jennifer Brier, editors. Out in Chicago: LGBT History at the Crossroads. Chicago History Museum, 2011.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Public, Chicago History Museum ; Affiliation (publisher): Public, Chicago History Museum ; Format: Book
Smith, Jason. “Gay Pride v. the City of Minneapolis: The Gay Pride Block Party Case.” Friends of the Bill of Rights Foundation, 2011.Region: Minnesota, Minneapolis ; Affiliation (author): Community ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Friends of the Bill of Rights Foundation ; Subject: Legal ; Format: Book
De la Croix, St. Sukie. Chicago Whispers: A History of LGBT Chicago Before Stonewall. University of Wisconsin Press, 2012.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Community ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Wisconsin ; Format: Book
Passet, Joanne E. “Hidden in Plain Sight: Gay and Lesbian Books in Midwestern Public Libraries, 1900–1969.” Library Trends 60, no. 4 (spring 2012): 749–64. IDEALS.Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic ; Subject: Media ; Format: Article, academic journal
Van Cleve, Stewart. Land of 10,000 Loves: A History of Queer Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, 2012.Region: Minnesota ; Affiliation (author): Community ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Minnesota ; Format: Book

New methods and forms, 2013–2018

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Citation (CMOS 18, NB)Keywords
Hewetson, Dick. History of the Gay Movement in Minnesota and the Role of the Minnesota Civil Liberties Union. Friends of the Bill of Rights Foundation, 2013.Region: Minnesota ; Affiliation (author): Community, activist ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Friends of the Bill of Rights Foundation ; Subject: Political ; Format: Book
Johnson, Colin R. Just Queer Folks: Gender and Sexuality in Rural America. Temple University Press, 2013.Region: Ohio, Mansfield ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Indiana University Bloomington ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Temple University ; Subject: Geography, rural ; Format: Book
Herring, Scott. "'Hixploitation' Cinema, Regional Drive-ins, and the Cultural Emergence of a Queer New Right." Queering the Middle, GLQ 20 (2014): 95–113.Affiliation (author): Academic ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Duke University ; Subject: Media ; Format: Article, academic journal
Rowe, Carolyn Joyce. "Michigan Womyn's Musical Festival: Place Making and the Queer Persistance of Feminism." PhD dissertation, University of British Columbia, 2014. Open Collections.Region: Michigan, Oceana County ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of British Columbia ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of British Columbia ; Format: Capstone
Schroeder, Christopher G. "(Un)holy Toledo: Intersectionality, Interdependence, and Neighborhood (Trans)formation in Toledo, Ohio." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 104, no. 1 (2014): 166–81.Region: Ohio, Toledo ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Taylor & Francis ; Subject: Geography, urban ; Format: Article, academic journal
Skidmore, Emily. "Ralph Kerwineo's Queer Body: Narrating the Scales of Social Membership in the Early Twentieth Century." GLQ 20 (2014): 41–74.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Academic, DePaul University ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Duke University ; Subject: Race, Latin ; Format: Article, academic journal
Syrett, Nicholas L. “Mobility, Circulation, and Correspondence: Queer White Men in the Midcentury Midwest.” Queering the Middle, GLQ 20 (2014): 75–94.Affiliation (author): Academic ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Duke University ; Subject: Race, critical whiteness ; Format: Article, academic journal
Torres, Lourdes. “Compañeras in the Middle: Toward a History of Latina Lesbian Organizing in Chicago.” Queering the Middle, GLQ 20 (2014): 141–66.Region: Wisconsin, Milwaukee ; Affiliation (author): Academic ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Duke University ; Subject: Race, Black ; Subject: Geography, urban ; Format: Article, academic journal
Bibus, Beth. “Battleground State: Minnesota.” In Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Civil Rights: A Public Policy Agenda for Uniting a Divided America, edited by Wallace Swan. Routledge, 2015.Region: Minnesota ; Affiliation (author): Public ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Taylor & Francis ; Subject: Legal ; Subject: Political ;Format: Book, chapter
Denby, Eric. “Fighting for Inclusion: The Origin of Gay Liberation at the University of Michigan.” MA thesis, Western Michigan University, 2015. ScholarWorks.Region: Michigan, Ann Arbor ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Western Michigan University ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Western Michigan University ; Subject: Students ;Format: Capstone
Hommerding, Christopher. “’As Gay as Any Gypsy Caravan’: Grant Wood and the Queer Pastoral at the Stone City Art Colony.” The Annals of Iowa 73 (fall 2015): 378–412.Region: Iowa, Stone City ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Wisconsin-Madison ; Affiliation (publisher): Public, State Historical Society of Iowa ;Format: Article, public history
Neal, Autumn. “Homosexuality in the Heartland: Alternative Print Media from 1970s Kansas City.” Lucerna: Honors Undergraduate Journal 10 (2015): 63–81. MOSpace.Region: Missouri, Kansas City ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Missouri-Kansas City ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Missouri-Kansas City ; Subject: Media ; Format: Article, undergraduate journal
Retzloff, Tim. “The Association of (Gay) Suburban People.” Places, April 2015. placesjournal.org/article/the-association-of-gay-suburban-peopleRegion: Michigan, Detroit area ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Michigan State University ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic ; Affiliation (publisher): Public ; Subject: Geography, urban, suburban ; Format: Article, academic journal ; Format: Digital
Rottmann, Andrea. “God Loves Them As They Are: How Religion Helped Pass Gay Rights in Wisconsin.” Wisconsin Magazine of History 99, no. 2 (winter 2015): 2–13.Region: Wisconsin ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Michigan ; Affiliation (publisher): Public, Wisconsin Historical Society ; Subject: Political ; Format: Article, public history
Scharlau, Kevin. “Navigating Change in the Homophile Heartland: Kansas City's Phoenix Society and the Early Gay Rights Movement, 1966–1971.” Missouri Historical Review 109, no. 4 (July 2015): 234–53.Region: Missouri, Kansas City ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Missouri-Kansas City ; Affiliation (publisher): Public, State Historical Society of Missouri ; Subject: Political ; Format: Article, public history
Witosky, Tom and Marc Hansen. Equal Before the Law: How Iowa Led Americans to Marriage Equality. University of Iowa Press, 2015.Region: Iowa ; Affiliation (author): Community ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Iowa ; Subject: Political ; Subject: Legal ; Format: Book
Scharlau, Kevin. “Duplicity: The University of Missouri Confronts Gay Lib, 1971–8.” Thesis, 2016. GLAMA.Region: Missouri, Kansas City ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Missouri-Kansas City ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Missouri-Kansas City ; Subject: Political ; Subject: Legal ; Subject: Students ; Format: Capstone
Seyforth, Scott C and Nichole Barnes. “’In People’s Faces for Lesbian and Gay Rights’: Stories of Activism in Madison, Wisconsin, 1970 to 1990.” The Oral History Review 43, no. 1 (2016): 81–97.Region: Wisconsin, Madison ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Wisconsin-Madison ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic ; Subject: Political ; Subject: Students ; Format: Article, academic journal
Stewart-Winter, Timothy. Queer Clout: Chicago and the Rise of Gay Politics. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Pennsylvania ; Subject: Political ; Format: Book
Takach, Mikhail. LGBT Milwaukee. Arcadia Publishing, 2016.Region: Wisconsin, Milwaukee ; Affiliation (author): Community ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Arcadia Publishing ; Format: Book
Wineland, Ben. “Then and Now: The Origins and Development of the Gay Community in South Bend.” Undergraduate Research Journal of History 6 (2016): 69–79.Region: Indiana, South Bend ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Indiana University South Bend ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Indiana University South Bend ; Format: Article, undergraduate journal
Cantwell, Christopher D., Stuart Hinds, Kathryn B. Carpenter, Taylor C. Bye, Samantha Bradfield, Allie Donnell, Avery Goetz, Samantha Hollingsworth, David Jenkins, Tyler Johnson, Gaile Juknevicius, Gaetano Mondello, Maria Olson, Leah Palmer, Kevin Ploth, and Jennifer Tufts, curators. “Making History: Kansas City and the Rise of Gay Rights.” UMKC WordPress, 2017. info.umkc.edu/makinghistory.Region: Missouri, Kansas City ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Missouri-Kansas City ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Missouri-Kansas City ; Format: Digital
Esparza, René. “From Vice to Nice: Race, Sex, and the Gentrification of AIDS.” PhD thesis, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 2017.Region: Minnesota, Minneapolis ; Region: Minnesota, St. Paul ; Region: Minnesota, Twin Cities ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities ; Subject: Race ; Subject: Legal ; Format: Capstone
Friedman, Andrea and Miranda Rectenwald, project leads. “Mapping LGBTQ St. Louis.” Washington University Libraries, 2017. storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/9675a82d3d564c80b950361e709dff5eRegion: Missouri, St. Louis ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Washington University ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Washington University ; Subject: Race ; Subject: Geography ; Format: Digital
Hines, Heather. “The LGBT Community Responds: The Lavender Scare and the Creation of Midwestern Gay and Lesbian Publications.” MA thesis, Bowling Green State University, 2017.Affiliation (author): Academic, Bowling Green State University ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Bowling Green State University ; Subject: Media ; Format: Capstone
Hommerding, Christopher. “The Pixies of Pendarvis: History, Performance, and Queerness in Twentieth-Century Small-Town Wisconsin.” PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2017. UWDC.Region: Wisconsin, Mineral Point ; Affiliation (author): Academic, University of Wisconsin-Madison ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Wisconsin-Madison ; Format: Capstone
Jackson, Steven and Jason Nargis. “Making Chicago's Boystown.” WBEZ 91.5 Chicago, May 7, 2017. interactive.wbez.org/curiouscity/makingboystown.Region: Illinois, Chicago, Boystown ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Northwestern University ; Affiliation (author): Community, journalist ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, WBEZ ; Format: Digital
Elledge, Jim. The Boys of Fairy Town: Sodomites, Female Impersonators, Third-Sexers, Pansies, Queers, and Sex Morons in Chicago's First Century. Chicago Review Press, 2018.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Community ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Chicago Review Press ; Format: Book
Janovy, CJ. No Place Like Home: Lessons in Activism from LGBT Kansas. University Press of Kansas, 2018.Region: Kansas ; Affiliation (author): Community ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Kansas ; Subject: Political ; Format: Book

Abundance and crossover, 2019–2024

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Citation (CMOS 18, NB)Keywords
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Nascent formation of a field, 2025–present

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Citation (CMOS 18, NB)Keywords
Esparza, René. From Vice to Nice: Midwestern Politics and the Gentrification of AIDS. University of North Carolina Press, 2025.Region: Minnesota, Twin Cities ; Region: Minnesota, Minneapolis ; Region: Minnesota, St. Paul ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Washington University ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of North Carolina ; Subject: Race ; Subject: Political ; Subject: Legal ; Subject: Geography, urban ; Format: Book
Fuller, Gereon, Jamie Kherbaoui, Kimmy Tanaka, Leila Stallone, Livia Lund, Lizzie Ehrenhalt, Luis Valderrama, and Ulysses Swanson, staff team. “Greater Minnesota Two-Spirit & LGBTQIA+ History Map.” Minnesota Historical Society, 2025. storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/ff9c23776f1d4b729caac2d034f2a09fRegion: Minnesota ; Region: Minnesota, Greater Minnesota ; Affiliation (author): Public, Minnesota Historical Society ; Affiliation (publisher): Public, Minnesota Historical Society ; Subject: Race, Indigenous ; Subject: Political ; Format: Digital
Fuller, Hannah. “Only in the Big City: Isolation, Rurality, and Leisure in Lesbian Chicago, 1971–1996.” Journal of Urban History OnlineFirst, September 28, 2025. doi.org/10.1177/00961442251371627.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Academic, Loyola University Chicago ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, Urban History Association ; Subject: Geography, rural ; Format: Digital ; Format: Article, academic journal
Keehnen, Owen. Gay Chicago Memories: 1300 N. Wells. Rattling Good Yarns Press, 2025.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Community, journalist ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Rattling Good Yarns Press ; Format: Book
Marques, Hollie. “The Foundation of a Movement: Kansas City's Role in Homophile Activism, 1966–1971.” Middle West Review 11, no. 2 (spring 2025): 147–54.Region: Missouri, Kansas City ; Affiliation (author): Academic ; Affiliation (publisher): Academic, University of Nebraska ; Subject: Political ; Format: Article, academic journal
Hogue, Jacob. Cincinnati Before Stonewall: The Untold Queer History of the Queen City. Arcadia Publishing, 2026.Region: Ohio, Cincinnati ; Affiliation (author): Public ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Arcadia Publishing ; Format: Book
Keehnen, Owen. A Place for Us: Gay Life at Chicago’s Belmont Rocks. Rattling Good Yarns Press, 2026.Region: Illinois, Chicago ; Affiliation (author): Community, journalist ; Affiliation (publisher): Independent, Rattling Good Yarns Press ; Format: Book

Organized by Ulysses H. Swanson
Last updated May 5, 2025